CBCS Sem-1 "Mrichchakatika": Theme of love

Theme of love in Mrichchhakatika

It was indeed a daring task for Sudraka to present onstage, in a rigid patriarchal ancient Indian society the consummation of a love affair between a respected Brahmin merchant Charudatta with the courtesan Vasantasena. The narrative of radical love begins with Vasantasena, a courtesan who has fallen in love with Charudatta after seeing him in the Garden of Lord Kama.The love in her heart is further triggered when pursued by the King’s lusty brother-in-law, she secretly slips into Charudatta’s dilapidated old house by extinguishing the lamp “with the hem of her garment.” On meeting Charudatta, whose poverty does not allow her to stay with him as a courtesan, she asks for the favour of leaving her ornaments “as a deposit” in his house. When he protests that his house is not fit for keeping deposits she reminds him that deposits are entrusted not to houses but to persons.

In the second act, in conversation with her maid Madanika, Vasantsena reveals how she is love sick. She tells her that she deposited the ornaments so as to have a reason to visit Charudatta again, and so, in a sense, what she deposits with Charudatta are not her ornaments but her love. Vasantasena's boldness is also highlighted when she is seen talking comfortably to her maid about how she wants to enjoy the pleasure of youth and true love instead of serving some king who needs to be served for the sake of his money. Charudatta opens before her an impossible chasm, a chasm that can only be leapt over by the radical and excessive emotion of love.It is as if the courtesan, the traditional gold-digger, has found an opportunity to discover a heart of gold within her; and it is only by letting go of her greedy ways that she can make the liberating leap of unconditional love.

So while Vasantasena’s love, due to her radical stance towards poverty, is intense and religious, Charudatta’s love for her is at best lukewarm. Charudatta, almost till the very end, treats her only as an attractive courtesan; it is Arayaka, the new king, who formally changes her social status from a ganika (courtesan) to a vadhu (bride) thereby giving her the license to marry Charudatta. Charudatta who, on losing Vasantasena’s ornaments deposited with him, can give away his wife’s expensive pearl necklace does not know how to give his heart. He seems as shackled in his desire for Vasantasena as Vasantasena is liberated in her desire for him.

Another short, yet significant and skillful love plot is the affair between Sharvilaka, an adventurous thief and Madanika, Vasantasena’s slave attendant. Sharvilaka is resolved to acquire by theft the means of buying her freedom. The casket of ornaments that Sharvilaka steals from Charudatta’s house, he learns later from Madanika, is actually Vasantasena’s and Madanika convinces him to pretend as Charudatta’s messenger who has come to return it. But when Sharvilaka returns the casket, Vasantasena, who has overheard the conversation between him and Madanika, decides to free Madanika by offering her as a gift to him.

CBCS Sem-1 "Abhijnana shakuntalam"; Role of Anasuya and Priyamvada

Significance of the role of Anasuya and Priyamvada

In Kalidasa’s most popular and arguably the greatest play Abhijnansakuntalam, we have Kanva, Vidushaka, Anasuya, Priyamvada and Gautami as minor characters but they perform their respective roles with utmost sincerity and responsibility. Anasuya and Priyamvada are depicted as the best friends of Shakuntala and have sisterly affection towards Shakuntala. Priyamvada shows a disposition, youthful and vivacious while Anasuya is rather serious.

Anasuya and Priyamvada pervade in the first half of the play and have significant role life of Sakuntala in the hermitage of Kanva. Anasuya was the help to Sakuntala in distress, logically handling every situation while Priyamvada, as the name suggests was pleasing andsweet spoken. Both the girls are quick enough to find that Sakuntala has fallen deeply in love and also well aware about the mental state of love-lornShakuntala. They also gave an excellent idea to Shakuntala to write a love letter to the King and conceal it in flowers that can be delivered into his hands under the pretext of offering flowers so that she can foster and strengthen her relationship with him

When sage Durvasacursed Sakuntala for ignoring his pious presence, it was Priyamvada who pleaded Sakuntala’s absent mindedness and obtained from the sage forgiveness and asked for showing mercy in so far that the curse would be lifted on the production of some token of recognition.Moreover, both Priyamvada and Anasuya are so dutiful, docile and loyal that they say nothing about the curse to any one; they do not even communicate it to Sakuntala as they thought it was not advisable to worry her with it as the token of recognition could easily be produced when the time is ripe.  In Act IV when Sakuntala departs from the hermitage to King Dushyanta palace, both of her friends wept bitterly and felt deserted.

Priyamvada and Anasuya play a pivotal role in the development of the romantic relationship between Dushyanta and Shakuntala in the early stages of the play. They made a chance to Dusyanta to appear before her in the guise of protection from the bee by saying that: “Who are we to protect you? Call to mind Dushyanta; the penance groves are under the royal protection.” Priyamvada persuades Dusyanta to ask more about Sakuntala and thereby satisfying Dushyanya’s curiosity about her lineage. Anasuya is careful enough to provide the hospitality to their renowned guest and begs his pardon politely for not receiving and engaging Dusyanta properly. She inquires about the cause of Sakuntala's illness consoles her that grief would be easy to bear if shared with a loving person.Anasuya seeks Sakuntala'sopinion in writing a love letter to Dusyanta, which was suggested by Priyamvada.They decorated Sakuntala using materials available at the hermitage when she is set to return to her husband.On her departure, they felt that they were orphans and cried bitterly in spite of Kashyap’s warning that ascetics should not have such emotions.

Thus, in the characterization of Anasuya and Priyamvada, Kalidasa has taken much liberty compared to his other maids.Unlike other maids Kanva assured a good future to them giving them marriage, though they do not appear in the play after Shakuntala’s departure.

CBCS Sem-1 "Abhijnana shakuntalam"; Character of Vidushaka

Character of Vidushaka in Abhijnanasakuntalam

Vidushaka the jester, originating in Sanskrit theatre, occupies a central position like the sutradhar. He creates laughter through instant witticisms and jocular speech, curved and ugly appearance, fanciful costume, and eccentric gestures. He is a humorous companion and confidential friend of the hero, and excites mirth by allowing himself to be made the butt of ridicule. But at the same time he is a witty experienced man, a keen and clever observer who usually comments on human foibles. Therefore the vidushaka always speaks in Prakrit and becomes the mouthpiece of common sense truths.  He is always a Brahman, who is repository of the knowledge and most respected as well. In the words of R.V.Jagirdar “He is the only character, who helps to introduce the hero, who serves as a foil to the latter and who is the only medium between the hero and the other characters on one hand and between the hero and the audience on the other.”

All the three vidushakas in Kaildasa's plays- Gautama in Kalidasa's first play MalavikagnimitramManavaka in Vikramovarsiyam and Madhavya in Abhijnanasakuntalam, are witty, figures of fun and comic in nature yet they all have their own unique qualities and roles in the plays which shows them as contrasting characters to each other.Madhavya in Abhijnanasakuntalamas a court jester is new in his set of characteristics.  Although a companion of king Dushyanta he does not stop mocking at him for his follies.  He is in every way a critic of the king.  Everyone around him is the subject for his witty criticism.  Unlike Gautama he makes no effort to make Dushayant and Shakuntala meet or unlike Manavaka he is not even a sympathetic listener to the Kings State of emotions.  He's a figure of fun but is deeply attached to the king.  The court jester Madhavya here is an ill-favoured hunchback.  In act 2 itself we come across his witty criticism as he remarks: “As my ill luck would have it, he chanced upon a beautiful hermit girl, Shakuntala is the name.  From that moment, sirs, the very idea of returning to the capital finds no place in his thoughts.” His sharp and caustic wit is evident yet again when Dushyanta asks him what has paralyzed his limbs and he answers: “A fine thing to ask; do you hit me in the eye and then ask why it is watering?”

He appears to be the typical creature of the court who hates the forest and everything about it. He complains to the king that he misses the good life of the palace. He unlike the other two vidushakas reminds his king of his duties and responsibilities as a ruler and that he needs to go back to the kingdom instead of indulging in hunting. He pretends to not to understand what Dushayanta feels for Shakuntala and as he compares his craving for  her like he himself craves for sweet dumplings and candied dates.  In a way it appears as if Madhavya condemns his love for Shakuntala.  Although he seems distant from Dushyanta's love affair he does advise him and that too wisely.  As he tells him “Hurry Sir, and rescue her before she falls into the hands of some forest dwelling hermit with greasy head and hair plastered down with Ingudi oil.” Madhavya does not spare any one, but openly criticizes anything he does not like fiercely.  He also makes fun of how restless the king is to get Shakuntala: “What Sir! did you expect then her to leap into into your arms as soon as she set eyes on  your honour?”

Madhavya seems determined to console his friend through the magical power of encouraging words.In the Act VI of the drama, he consoles king Dushyanta, saying that fate is ever powerful.He advocates that good or great man never gives way to sorrow. Mountains do not tremble in storms. Thus, he provides immediate help and relief to Dushyanta to overcome from grief and sorrow.Moreover, in the Act V, the Vidushaka's simplicity also allows him to be seized and detained by Hamsapadika who has a very important purpose; for had he been present when Shakuntala was brought in and repudiated, he would have recognized her, as his memory was not cursed. Similarly, in the next act, Vidushaka is a ready instrument in the hands of Matali who is enabled to rouse Dushyanta from his lethargy, only by pretending an attack on the Vidushaka. It is noted that the Vidushaka conveys the cultured and the civilized sentiments of the hero to the audience and shows more of his common sense.

Thus Madhavya provides all that there is required to ascertain that the king is in love with Shakuntala, comforts and cajoles him and even satirizes him for his foibles.  However he is absent during critical moments in the play. Firstly he is sent back to the kingdom to take part in the rituals.  He is absent at the crucial stage when Dushayanta gets married to Shakuntala and also during the trial scene of Act V.

CBCS SEM-1 "Abhijnana Shakuntalam": significance of prologue

Significance of the prologue in Abhijnanasakuntalam

The classical Sanskrit dramas customarily commenced with ‘nandi’ (benedictory stanza) and followed by the prologue wherein the stage manager or director (sutradhara) with his wife or assistant introduces the actors and also informs the audience of the play. The ‘preliminaries’ (purva-ranga) consist of a series of religious ceremonies with prayers and offerings of flowers to the deities, performed with specific gestures and sequences of movements to the accompaniment of music. It serves a dual purpose—framing drama in a religious setting and providing the audience with some entertainment. The association with Siva provides the quality of prayer to what is basically secular drama, as evidenced by the benediction.The invocations in the plays and the epic are made to the unitive godhead, Siva- Sakti: in Sakuntala and Malavikagnimitram to Siva’s eightfold form perceptible to human consciousness are praised.

Since it is assumed that classical Sanskrit drama was influenced by Greek drama, especially due to the annexation of Alexander the great, Sanskrit drama adopted different features exiting in the ancient Greek plays. The play Abhijnanasakuntalamopens with a benediction to the gods and after the benediction the director and actress are enter the stage. The director introduces the name of the play as Abhijnanasakuntalam and asks to treat the audience with a song about the season summer. She sings so well that the director is spellbound and forgets why he is on the stage until she reminds the purpose of their appearance. The prologue ends with the director mentioning about failing of memory and relates it to the hunting Dushyanta. Further, the plays of Kalidsa were probably written under the patronage of King Vikramaditya and performed during social ceremonies and festivals before an audience consisting of learned royal personages and courtiers. As a consequence of which Kalidasa takes the opportunity of the play to praise an august audience through the prologue: “we have here before us, an august audience that is highly educated and most discerning.”

The director speaks of something to delight the audience’s ears. That the actress immediately proposes to sing about one of the seasons is striking. The director then increases the perplexity of the situation by proposing the current season, summer, and emphasizing on the factors which make the current season enjoyable: “for at the moment- Days draw to a close in quiet beauty; plunging in cool waters is delightful; sleep drops softly in thick-shaded haunts; woodland breezes blow fresh and fragrant having consorted with Patali flowers.” The season versus moment interplay suggests the relationship between ornament and form. When the actress sings about a season, she insists on the momentary occurrences, when the Sirisa blossoms are swayed lightly by the sweet breeze and kissed by the murmuring haunt of bees. The play between season, moment, and delight, raises the further question as to why the song of the season would cause the director to momentarily forget his greater project. The moment of this summer season actually connects the prologue to the play as Dushyanta appears chasing an antelope in the summer noon.

Thusthe prologue in Abhijnanasakuntalam isso integrated into the play, that one may call it the first of eight acts, rather than only a mere prelude.

CBCS SEM-1 "Abhijnana Shakuntalam": Significance of the ring and the curse episode

Write an essay on the significance of the ring and the curse in Abhijnanasakuntalm?

Kalidasa has a predilection for the mystique of the curse. The Meghadutam opens against the background of a curse, the Raghuvamsam too, carries a curse in the first canto followed by two others in cantos VIII and IX, in Vikramorvasiyam the curse motif is employed in Act II and again in Act IV. Finally, in Abhijnanasakuntalm the curse of sage Durvasa is intrinsic to the plot and purpose of the play. But while in the other plays the curse motif is steeped in the doctrine of Karma, where one has to pay for one’s deeds, in Abhijnanasakuntalm it is a token of the subtle psychological insight of the poet. Indeed Kalidasa was writing for an audience who were prone to observing the hero-king as a virtuous “dhiroddhata nayaka” as consequence of which in Kalidasa’s version the veritable debauchery and abandonment of the Aryan king Dushyanta is masked by the curse of Durvasa which makes him forget all about Shakuntala.

The curse motif in Abhijnanasakuntalm is intimately wedded to the ring motif. The curse and the ring symbolize a clash between divinity and love, between the mundane and the obvious, between fate and karma. King Dushyanta, the hero of the play on a haunting expedition visits the penance grove of Kanva. There he finds three girls watering the plantsone of whom is Shakuntala, the foster-daughter of Kanva.She inherited the intelligence of her father sage Vishwamitra and the beauty of her divine mother Menaka. It was no wonder that Dushyanta fell in love with her instantly upon beholding her.In the meanwhile Shakuntala is also struck at the king‘s appearance and readily falls in love with him for it is to be remembered that Dushyanta was a handsome warrior. However, she would not consent to be his wife immediately as she wishes for the permission from her father sage Kanva. Dushyanta could not bear the thought of waiting for so long before marrying her. He had never been accustomed to wait for anything in his life. He finally persuades her to an instant marriage of “Gandharva-vivaha”, with Mother Nature as the witness. After some days, the King gets news of unrest in his city and is summoned to return. He leaves half-heartedly, but promises to return soon and take his beloved with him. As a token of love, he gives her a signet ring and promises to send an envoy to escort her to the palace.

In the meantime, Shakuntala could not put the King out of her mind. She spent all her time brooding, waiting for the time when Dushyanta would come back and take her to his kingdom. She was so absent minded, that she even stopped tending to her favorite garden, where she had met the King for the first time. One day, sage Durvasa, infamous for his mercurial anger, stops by the hut for hospitality. Lost in her love thoughts, Shakuntala fails to acknowledge his presence. This infuriates the temperamental sage and he censures Shakuntala, cursing that the one whom she is thinking about will forget her. As he departed in a rage, Anusuya one of Shakuntala's friends quickly explained to him the reason for her friend's distraction. The rishi, realizing that his extreme wrath was not warranted, modified his curse saying that the person who had forgotten Shakuntala would remember everything again if she showed him a personal token that had been given to her.A few months passed, and Shakuntala discovered that she was pregnant. Kanva decided that it was time for her to go to her husband's kingdom.

Shakuntala always wore the signet ring given to her by Dushyanta on her ring finger. While traveling, they were bathing in a river, and as fate would have it, her ring slipped from her finger and was washed away in the river. She was very much upset, as it was the only thing that she had in her husband's memory.Without the ring, Shakuntala cannot move the king with her pleas. She engages in bitter recriminations against the king and accuses him of playing fast and loose with her affections. Meanwhile, the king accuses Shakuntala of being an imposter.The signet ring that had been washed away in the river, lay at the bottom of the river for a long time. At last, it was swallowed by a fish. This fish was caught in the net of a fisherman in Dushyanta's kingdom. When he cut open the fish to cook it, he found the ring inside it. He immediately recognized the signet ring of his king, and took it to the court. When Dushyanta saw it, the curse of Durvasa was lifted. He immediately remembered Shakuntala. He was very much grieved, for she had come to meet him, only to be insulted in his court. He resolved to seek her out and apologize for his conduct, and ask her to be his queen. The newly wise Dushyanta defeats an army of Asuras, and is rewarded by Indra with a journey through heaven. There was a very happy reunion, with the King begging the sage's and his wife's pardon for the events that had taken place in his court. They both forgave him immediately, as he was blameless in this matter, Durvasa's curse being the cause of his behaviour.

Thus after a series of mishaps the curse is lifted, and the lovers are allowed to remain together on the earth. The curse and the ring motif is an instance of clash between the divinity and love in which love ultimately succeeds.

CBCS SEM-1: "Abhijnana Shakuntalam"; Character of Shakuntala

Character of Shakuntala in kalidasa’s Abhigyan Shakuntalam

In her essay on ‘Shakuntala’, Roshni Rustomji observes that most of the heroines of Sanskrit literature appear to posses two common characteristics. She says, “First, they are beautiful to look at and second, they seem to play `a passive role in the events of the narratives where they feature`. But when we look deeper, we find something more than mere attributes of conventional beauty and traditional feminine passivity which is her strength of mind.”

Kalidasa’s “Abhijnanasakuntalam”, has its roots in the grand epic of ‘Mahabharata’ by Vyasa where we have an episode down the lineage of the kings of Hastinapura. Kalidasa adopts the love story of king Dushyanta and Shakuntala. Shakuntala is the daughter of sage Vishvamitra and apsara Menaka, but she is abandoned at birth and raised by sage Kanva in his ashrama. Shakuntala’s encounter, marriage, separation and reunion is what we got to see in the play. Her caring and nurturing quality, her key strengths are beautifully described in the opening scene of the play when she is watering the plants in the hermitage. But while Vyasa depicted Shakuntala as a strong and independent woman with a mind of her own, Kalidasa projected her as a submissive little lady swayed by a string of misfortunes.

In straight words the story is of a king who goes on hunting to a forest, gets enamoured by an enchanting hermit girl, seduces her and leaves not to return. Later, returns to accept her as his queen only for the want of an heir to the throne. In Kalidasa’s version however the veritable debauchery and abandonment of the Aryan king Dushyanta is masked by the curse of Durvasa which makes him forget all about Shakuntala.

At the first appearance Shakuntala is an embodiment and personification of nature herself, brought up in the vincity of the Malini river at the foothills of the Himalayas. Despite living in an ashrama and clad in bark garments, her radiant beauty and elegance mesmerizes Dushyanta. Shakuntala has a sweet voice, she is so gentle that even animals and birds of the forest are charmed and petted by her. Commenting about Shakuntala, Dushyanta says to Madhava: “ A flower whose fragrance none has dared to smell;/ Spring’s tenderest shoot no profaning fingers have plucked; / Fresh honey whose taste no lips has relished;/ A gem glowing inviolate./ Who can tell what sinless mortal  Brahma has named,/ The blessed enjoyer of such beauty”

However, Shakuntala is not a mere beauty but a pillar of strength and patience. As Romila Thapar writes, “In Kalidasa’s version we are in the realm of delicacy and romance, imminent tragedy and happiness… but while intermeshing of the emotions, we can see the image of Shakuntala undergoes a transformation.” Shakuntala, after the cruel rejection of the king, is stunned, filled with shame and sorrow, followed by anger. Shakuntala’s skills of argument and of drawing upon associations of memory can be seen when she is in the court, is pregnant and the king refuses to recognize or accept her. Her speech is long and impassioned but rational. She is not whining or begging the king. She boldly tells Dushyanta of the future implications and results of his false actions. Shakuntala’s strength echoes in her words, and at the end of the story divine intervention restores her to rightful happiness.

The love-sickness and day-dreaming quality of Kalidasa’s Shakuntala which causes the curse of sage Durvasa to befell her, however, is not considered to be a flaw in her nature but shows the extent to which she loves and feels connected to Dushyanta. Her virtue, forbearance and kindness are clearly seen when, after so much suffering, meted out by the king, she does not hesitate to forgive and welcome him.

In the world of classical Sanskrit literature, it is significant that a woman, however beautiful, cannot be deemed virtuous if she lacks the virtues of womanhood, faithfulness, and devotion to her husband- which enhances the beauty of the woman in the patriarchal world of the play. Thus, Shakuntala’s strength of mind lies in her deep and powerful emotions,  her forgiving nature and forbearance, loving and patient nature which are her weapons to deal with her predicaments.

Return to the romanticism: Development of Wordsworth's relationship with nature in "TINTERN ABBEY"

Tintern Abbey : Critical appreciation/ Development of Wordsworth relationship with nature

Wordsworth was a poet with romanticism throbbing in his veins. He had immense love for naïve nature and all that was simple and good.  “Lines Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey, on Revisiting the Banks of the Wye during a Tour. July 13, 1798.” Or “Tintern Abbey”, written in form of a dramatic monologue in unrhymed iambic pentameter lines, deals with the gradual development of Wordsworth’s relationship with nature, in a reminiscencical mood. The memory of pure communion with nature in childhood works upon the mind even in adulthood, when access to that pure communion has been lost, and that the maturity of mind present in adulthood offers compensation for the loss of that communion—to see nature with an eye toward its relationship to human life.

The poem opens with the speaker’s declaration that five years have passed since he last visited this location, encountered its tranquil, rustic scenery, and heard the murmuring waters of the river. He recites the objects he sees again, and describes their effect upon him: the “steep and lofty cliffs” impress upon him “thoughts of more deep seclusion”; he leans against the dark sycamore tree and looks at the cottage-grounds and the orchard trees, whose fruit is still unripe. He sees the “wreaths of smoke” rising up from cottage chimneys between the trees, and imagines that they might rise from “vagrant dwellers in the houseless woods,” or from the cave of a hermit in the deep forest.

            The speaker then describes how his memory of these “beauteous forms” has worked upon him in his absence from them: when he was alone, or in crowded towns and cities, they provided him with “sensations sweet, / Felt in the blood, and felt along the heart.” The memory of the woods and cottages offered “tranquil restoration” to his mind, and even affected him when he was not aware of the memory, influencing his deeds of kindness and love. He further credits the memory of the scene with offering him access to that mental and spiritual state in which the burden of the world is lightened, in which he becomes a “living soul” with a view into “the life of things.”

He thinks happily, too, that his present experience will provide many happy memories for future years. The speaker acknowledges that he is different now from how he was in those long-ago times, when, as a boy, he “bounded o’er the mountains” and through the streams. In those days, he says, nature made up his whole world: waterfalls, mountains, and woods gave shape to his passions, his appetites, and his love. That time is now past, he says, but he does not mourn it, for though he cannot resume his old relationship with nature, he has been amply compensated by a new set of more mature gifts; for instance, he can now “look on nature, not as in the hour / Of thoughtless youth; but hearing oftentimes / The still, sad music of humanity.” And he can now sense the presence of something far more subtle, powerful, and fundamental in the light of the setting suns, the ocean, the air itself, and even in the mind of man; this energy seems to him “a motion and a spirit that impels / All thinking thoughts.... / And rolls through all things.”

Additionally, the presence of his sister gives him a view of himself as he imagines himself to have been as a youth. Happily, he knows that this current experience will provide both of them with future memories, just as his past experience has provided him with the memories that flicker across his present sight as he travels in the woods. He offers a prayer to nature that he might continue to do so for a little while, knowing, as he says, that “Nature never did betray / The heart that loved her,” but leads rather “from joy to joy

Thus Wordsworth divides the human life into three different phases of distinct relationship to nature. A young child is at one with nature, bounding through the countryside like an animal. An adolescent feels a spiritual kinship, the adult perspective on nature is one which is affected by the intellect to see nature with an eye toward its relationship to human life and finally a feeling of unity with nature, providing a pantheistic outlook of perceiving God and Nature as one.